The land: The largest of India's Himalayan states comprises three regions: Jammu, the mainly Hindu foothills in the south; the Vale of Kashmir, overwhelmingly Muslim in the centre; Ladakh and Zanskar, the western highlands of the great Himalayanaxis predominantly Buddhist.

Jammu is the borderland with the Punjab, and the transitional zone between the plains and the mountains. To the north the Shiwaliks give onto the Pir Panjalwhich attain heights of 5,000 m.

The Vale of Kashmir lies between the Pir Panjal and the High Himalaya, at an average altitude of 1,580 m.
Rising behind the Vale are the Great Himalaya which culminate in the west with Nanga Parbat ('Naked Mount' - 8,125 m). The Nagin and Dal lakes dominate Srinagar Nearby is Anchar Lake.

The Trans-Himalaya form a rugged zone of transition, the Zanskar range to the south and the Ladakh range to the north, with an average altitude of 5,000 m. Leh the capital, is at an altitude of 3,520 m, As the mountains were raised the Indus main tained its course, carving very deep gorges.

Climate: Even in the Vale, the air in summer is fresh and at night can even be quite brisk. The highest daytime temperatures in July rarely exceed 35°C but may fall as low as -11°C in winter. A short climb quickly reduces these temperatures. In Ladakh the sun cuts through the thin atmosphere, and daily and seasonal temperature variations are even wider. The rain-bearing clouds drifting in from the Arabian Sea never reach Ladakh. Srinagar receives over 650 mm per annum whereas Leh has only 85 mm, much as snow. Over half Srinagar's rain comes with westerly depressions in the winter.

History: Ruled for many years by Scythian and then Tartar princes, Kashmir was captured by Shams ud Din in 1341 who spread Islam across the Vale which subsequently became popular with the Mughals. Babur longed for the streams and cool mountain air of the Hindu Kush. In 1588 the Mughal Emperor Akbar conquered Kashmir and his son Jahangir (1605-27), captivated by the beauty of the Vale of Kashmir, planted chenar trees and constructed pleasure gardens. At the close of the first Sikh War in 1846 Jammu, the Vale of Kashmir, Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit were assigned to the Maharaja Gulab Singh of Jammu, who founded a dynasty of Dogra Rajputs, descended from the Katoch branch of the lunar race of Rajputs. Thus, Hindus ruled a mainly Muslim population.

Independence Kashmir's future remained unresolved at Independence. Eighteen months of fighting in 1948-49 left the state split by a UN monitored ceasefire line, much of which remains the de facto border between India and Pakistan. Of the total area of the pre-Independence State, over which India continues to claim the legitimate right to govern, 78,000 sq km are currently controlled by Pakistan and a further 42600 sq km by China. Kashmir has remained the single most important cause of conflict between the two countries ever since 1949, while arguments for autonomy within the Kashmir Valley have periodically dominated the political agenda. Since 1989 the Indian army has struggled to keep control against a Pakistan-backed militia.

The current political situation: Although there was some appearance of a wish to find a solution to the violent conflict in Kashmir, in 2001 there was still little evidence of substance. The Indian government offered a unilateral ceasefire for the muslim holy month of Ramazan and has begun talks with various groups within Kashmir over the region's future status. However, they refuse to include pakistan within the talks, claiming that Pakistan has no legitimate status in discussions over Indian terri-tory, though they are prepared to enter bi-lateral talks. the state in three along the lines of the principal religious character of the state: predominatly Buddhist Ladakh, Hindu Jammu and the overwhelmingly Muslim Vale of Srinagar, but opponents claim that this proposal will] only heighten tensions between religious and other minority communities across India. Pakistan remains committed to a referendum allowing Kashmiris a vote on whether to join Pakistan or stay with India, but without the option to vote for Independence. India continues to be determined to face down opposition to as control of the state. An estimated 300000 troops remain in the region and despite some sources urging tourists to alart visiting again most foreign consulates still advise visitors to stay away.

People and language: Culturally tlie people of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh could Culture scarcely be more different from each other. The nine million people are unevenly scat-tered. The Vale of Kashmir has over half, whilst Ladakh is the most sparsely populated, Jammu was traditionally the seat of Dogra power and serves a largely Hindu population with its affinities more with the Punjab than the Vale. Kashmir marks the northernmost advance of Islam in the Himalaya while Ladakh is aptly named 'Little Tibet'. Ethnically the Ladakhis are of Tibetan stock.
Indeed, it was once a province of Tibet and was gov-erned in secular matters by an independent prince and in spiritual

affairs by the Dalai Lama. Kashmiri is influenced by Sanskrit and belongs to the Dardic branch of the Indo-Aryan languages. Linguistically and physically Kashmiris are similar to the tribes sound Gilgit in Pakistan. The Ladakhis physically reveal Tibetan- Mongolian and Indo-Aryan origins while their language belongs to the Tibetan-Burmese group.

Handicrafts: Kashmir is renowned for its distinctive and fine handicrafts. Many of these developed when Srinagar was an entrepot on the ancient trans-Himalayan trade route. High quality craftsmanship in India initially owed much to the patronage of the court and Kashmir was no exception. From the 15th century onwards, carpet making, shawl weaving and embroidery and decorative techniques were actively encouraged and the tradition grew to demands made at home and abroad. Since tourism has been severely affected in the Vale since 1989, Kashmiri tradesmen have sought markets in other parts of India.

Kashmir shawls are world renowned for their softness and warmth. The best are pashmina and shahtush, the latter being the warmest, the rarest and, consequently, the most expensive. Prized by Moghuls and Maharajas they found their way to Europe and through Napoleon's Egyptian campaign became an item of fashion in France. The craft was possibly introduced from Persia in the 15th century. Originally a fine shawl would like months to complete especially if up to 100 colours were used.

The soft fleece oftlie pashmina goat or the fine under hairs of the Tibetan antelope were used, the former for cashmere shawls, the latter for shahtush. The very best were soft and warm and yet so fine that they could be drawn through a finger ring. The designs changed over the years from floral patterns in the 17th century to Paisley in the 19th century. The Mughals, especially Akbar used them as gills. However, with the introduction of the Jacquard loom, cheap imitations were mass produced at a fraction of the price. The Kashmir shawls thus became luxury items, their manufacture remaining an important source of employment in the Vale, but they ceased to lie I lie major export.

Carpets: Hand knotted carpels are available in pure wool and mixed with cotton of silk, The patterns tend to the traditional, the Persian and Bukhara styles being common, though figurative designs such as The Tree of Life are becoming increasingly popular. Young boys work with a master and it is common to hear then calling out the colour changes in a chant. Child labour in carpet making across North India is increasingly widely criticized. Government attempts to insist on limiting hours of work and the provision of schooling often seem to be ignored. A large carpet will take months to complete, the price depending on the density of knots and the material used, silk being by far the most expensive. The salesmen usually claim that only vegetable dyes are used and whilst this is true in some instances, more readily available and cheaper chemical dyes are commonplace. After knotting, the pile is trimmed with scissors, loose threads burnt off and the carpet washed and dried.
Papier mache boxes, trays, coasters make ideal gifts. Paper is soaked, dried in a mould, then painted and lacquered. Traditionally, natural colouring was used (lapis lazuli for blue, gold leaf for gold, charcoal for black) but this is unlikely today. The patterns can be highly intricate and the finish exquisite.
Other crafts include crewel work (chain stitching) on fabric, fur coats and 'Kashmiri silver' jewellery, silk and fine woodcarving, particularly on walnut wood.

Modern Government The state enjoys a special status within the union. As defined in Arti-Jammu & cle 370 of the constitution, since 1956 Jammu and Kashmir has had its own constitu-Kashmir tion affirming its integrity. The central government has direct control over defence,
external affairs and communications within the state and indirect influence over cit-izenship, Supreme Court jurisdiction and emergency powers. In normal times the state sends six representatives to the Lok Sabha and two members who are nomi-nated by the governor to the Rajya Sabha.